Martha Graham and Greek Myth

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Martha Graham and Greek Myth An initiative that brings together classical philology with modern dance.

Zeus, the king of the gods and ruler of the universe, is usually depicted in positions of control, either seated in his ...
11/07/2025

Zeus, the king of the gods and ruler of the universe, is usually depicted in positions of control, either seated in his throne or standing about to attack with his thunderbolt aimed against his opponents. Martha Graham included Zeus as a character in her 1987 dance piece “Persephone,” as Zeus is the one who gives his consent for Hades to abduct Persephone.

Apollo, god of order, music, prophecy, archery, and healing, commands Orestes to kill his own mother, Clytemnestra, thus taking vengeance for his father Agamemnon. After the murder, Apollo offers Orestes protection at his sanctuary at Delphi. In Martha Graham’s 1958 piece “Clytemnestra”, Apollo, Athena, and Hades are the three gods who are present with Clytemnestra’s shade in the Underworld. In this dance Clytemnestra revisits the tragic events of her life in her memory and imagination.

Images: 1. The Birth of Athena from Zeus’ head. Attic Red-Figure Pelike. ca. 460-450 BCE. The British Museum. London. 2. Zeus and Ganymede. Attic Red-Figure Neck-Amphora. ca. 460-450 BCE. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. 3. Apollo protects Orestes at Delphi while a Fury pursues him. Apollo Apulian Red-Figure Volute-Krater. ca. early 4th century BCE. Archaeological Museum of Naples. Naples, Italy.

The Minotaur, the half-man, half-bull monster born from the union of Pasiphae with a bull and enclosed in the labyrinth ...
07/07/2025

The Minotaur, the half-man, half-bull monster born from the union of Pasiphae with a bull and enclosed in the labyrinth in Crete, is slain by the Greek hero Theseus. The princess of Crete, Ariadne, helps Theseus with his mission by giving him a ball of thread which allows him to find his way back out of the labyrinth.
In her 1947 masterpiece “Errand into the Maze” Graham created her own version of the story and replaced Theseus with a woman. The woman enters into the labyrinth of her mind and faces the mythical Minotaur within her inner self. Graham called the figure of the Minotaur the “Creature of Fear” and used him to embody the woman’s fears.

Image: Theseus kills the Minotaur. Attic Red-Figure Calyx-Krater. ca. 340-330 BCE. Unknown provenance. National Archaeological Museum. Athens.

Charon, the ferryman of the Underworld, helps transport the souls of the dead through the river Acheron or Styx and into...
04/07/2025

Charon, the ferryman of the Underworld, helps transport the souls of the dead through the river Acheron or Styx and into the Underworld. The Greeks felt that Charon had to be paid for his services, so they often placed a coin in the mouth of the deceased. Charon is depicted in his boat on many 5th century BCE lekythoi, small vase offerings buried with the dead.

Charon appears as a character leading the way into Hades in Martha Graham’s 1967 “Cortege of Eagles.” This dance retells the story of the sack of Troy from the perspective of the Trojan Queen Hecuba who witnesses the murder of her sons, daughter, grandson, and husband Priam.

Images: 1. Charon in a boat. Attic white-ground lekythos. ca. 5th century BCE. Attributed to the Tymbos Painter. Ashmolean Museum. Oxford.
2. Charon, Hermes and youth. Attic white-ground lekythos. ca. 450 BCE. Attributed to the Sabouroff Painter. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York.
3. The garment of death. Attic white-ground lekythos. ca. 440-430 BCE. Attributed to the Sabouroff Painter. National Archaeological Museum. Athens.

Thanatos, the personification of Death, appears in a number of Greek myths, to es**rt the living to the realm of the dea...
02/07/2025

Thanatos, the personification of Death, appears in a number of Greek myths, to es**rt the living to the realm of the dead. On this vase he comes together with Hypnos, the personification of Sleep, to retrieve the body of the Trojan Sarpedon, Zeus’ son, who has just been killed by Patroclus.

Hades, the King of the Dead and ruler of the Underworld, is distinct from Thanatos. Hades is most well known for his abduction of Persephone, whom he leads to the Underworld in a chariot drawn by four horses. In abducting Persephone, Hades both marries and kills her, highlighting the interesting parallels we find between rituals of marriage and death.

Martha Graham included Thanatos as a character in her 1960 dance “Alcestis.” He arrives to claim Alcestis but ends up fighting and being defeated by Heracles; Hades appears both in Clytemnestra (1958) and in Persephone (1987). In “Clytemnestra” he rules the Underworld and Clytemnestra challenges him by asking him why she has been dishonored. In “Persephone” he wears a large keyhole mask and comes to ensnare Persephone. According to dance critic Anna Kisselgoff, “The ruling motif is that of a mother's lament - that of Demeter, goddess of fertility, who searches for her daughter, Persephone, after she has been abducted to the underworld.” (NYTimes Review, Oct. 15, 1987).

Images: 1. Thanatos (Death), Hypnos (Sleep) and Hermes come to take the body of the Trojan warrior Sarpedon. The Euphronios Krater. Archaic Red-Figure Calyx-Krater. ca. 515 BCE. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. 2. The abduction of Persephone by Hades surrounded by gods. Apulian Red-Figure Hydria. ca. 340-330 BCE. Attributed to the Group of B.M.F. 308. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York.

Astyanax, Hector and Andromache’s young son, is killed by the Greeks either by being stabbed or by being cruelly thrown ...
30/06/2025

Astyanax, Hector and Andromache’s young son, is killed by the Greeks either by being stabbed or by being cruelly thrown off the walls of Troy. His story is narrated in Euripides’ tragedies “Trojan Women” and “Andromache.” It also appears in ancient vases like this Red-Figure Hydria, where Priam holds his dead grandchild Astyanax and seeks refuge at an altar while Achilles’ son, Neoptolemus, is about to kill him.

Polydorus is the youngest son of Priam and Hecuba. To protect him from the war at Troy, his parents sent him, together with much gold, to their friend King Polymestor of Thrace. After Troy is sacked, Polymestor fears the Greeks will punish him and kills Polydorus. On learning of her youngest son’s murder, Hecuba blinds Polymestor and kills his two sons.

Martha Graham narrated the sack of Troy and Hecuba’s suffering in her 1967 dance “Cortege of Eagles.” The same dancer performs the roles of Achilles and Polymestor, the men that caused Hecuba most harm. In 1968, dance critic Jacqueline Maskey reviewed the piece’s second performance: “Hecuba sits amid the ruins of her city and her life. Her husband, sons, daughter and grandsons are dead, and this violation of her life induces her to commit a like violation in blinding Polymnestor, the murderer of her youngest son. All the events that have struck her give her a majesty in revenge that Graham projects powerfully. Although there are formidable performances all around her - in particular William Louther as Charon, the Ferryman of the Dead; Bertram Ross as both Achilles and the cringing Polymnestor, Ethel Winter as Andromache and Miss McGehee as Polyxena, she remains the monolithic figure. Although her physical powers have diminished, Miss Graham's power of presence has not, and "Cortege" is a testament to its continuing life.”

Images: 1. Priam has taken refuge at an altar with his grandson Astyanax already killed by Neoptolemus. Attic Red-Figure Hydria. 5th century BCE. National Archaeological Museum. Naples. 2. Polydorus fighting. Chalcidian Black-Figure Hydria. ca. 550 BCE. The British Museum. London. 3. Polymestor’s blinding by Hecuba. Apulian Red-Figure Loutrophoros. ca.330 BCE. The British Museum. London

The Trojan prince Paris abducts or seduces Helen, and becomes the cause of the long 10 year war between the Greeks and t...
27/06/2025

The Trojan prince Paris abducts or seduces Helen, and becomes the cause of the long 10 year war between the Greeks and the Trojans. A handsome man who gives in to his erotic desires, he is often presented as a coward in battle. In this vase he is depicted in Eastern attire climbing on his chariot with Helen in his embrace. Eros, the personification of love and desire, flies over them.

Paris appears as a character in two of Martha Graham’s dance pieces. First, he is part of Graham’s 1958 “Clytemnestra”, a dance which narrates the story of Clytemnestra through the perspective of the female protagonist. When her husband Agamemnon returns home from Troy, she sees a vision of Paris and Helen dancing, a reminder of the feelings of love and desire that were responsible for the war. In her 1967 work “Cortege of Eagles” Paris appears as well. This piece centers on Trojan Queen Hecuba’s extreme suffering due to her loss of her husband, grandson, and many of her sons, including Paris, during the war.

Image: The abduction of Helen by Paris. Attic Red-Figure Lekythos. ca. 380-365 BCE. Attributed to the Painter of Helen. The State Hermitage Museum. Saint Petersburg.

The Trojan prince Hector is brutally killed at the hands of the vengeful Achilles, who attacks him after the death of hi...
25/06/2025

The Trojan prince Hector is brutally killed at the hands of the vengeful Achilles, who attacks him after the death of his beloved companion Patroclus. After Hector dies, Achilles defiles his body and drags it violently around the funeral pyre of Patroclus. This archaic hydria illustrates the defilement of Hector’s co**se while his parents Hecuba and Priam (depicted on the left) watch in horror and raise their hands in a gesture of mourning. To underline the reasons for Achilles’ ruthless behavior, the painter reminds us of Patroclus’ death: on the right, a white mound with a snake at its base represents the tomb of Patroclus while the tiny winged figure in the upper right is Patroclus’ shade.

Priam, King of Troy, saw thirteen of his sons killed during the last year of the Trojan War. When his son Hector is killed, Priam dares to make the dangerous journey to Achilles’ tent and is able to persuade Achilles to return Hector’s body so that Priam can offer him a proper burial. Priam is later killed on an altar by Achilles’ son Neoptolemos, a scene that is frequently depicted by ancient artists.

Martha Graham retold the story of the sack of Troy from the perspective of the Trojan Queen Hecuba who witnesses the murder of her sons, grandson, and husband Priam in her 1967 dance piece “Cortege of Eagles.”

Images: The chariot of Achilles dragging the co**se of Hector. Archaic Black-Figure Hydria. ca. 520-510 BCE. Attributed to the Antiope Group. Museum of Fine Arts. Boston. / The death of Priam. Archaic Black-Figure Amphora. ca. 520-510 BCE. Unattributed. The Louvre Museum. Paris.

Achilles, the most powerful of Greek warriors, features prominently in Homer’s “Iliad,” where the poet focuses on his in...
20/06/2025

Achilles, the most powerful of Greek warriors, features prominently in Homer’s “Iliad,” where the poet focuses on his intense emotions, his wrath against Agamemnon, his grief for the death of his friend Patroclus, and his renewed wrath for Hector who slays his beloved companion. In this volute krater Achilles is portrayed in his last battle with Hector, whom he has fatally wounded. Athena and Apollo are shown at the side of each hero, assisting Achilles and Hector respectively.

In her 1967 dance “Cortege of Eagles”, Martha Graham makes Hecuba, Queen of Troy, relive the carnage of the Trojan War. Renowned dance critic Ann Kisselgoff comments in her 1985 review of the dance: “The role, however, is a passive one. Miss Graham was in her 70's when she first performed it, and it was a role that banked upon her unique stage presence rather than upon dance power. The events that take place in flashback are typically a projection of Hecuba's mind - and they are acted out by other dancers.”

In the dance Achilles appears as one of the characters that has caused Hecuba the most suffering, having been the killer of her dear son Hector and the main contributor to the sack of Troy.

Image: Achilles fighting Hector, attended by their patrons, Athena and Apollo. Red-figured Volute-Krater (bowl for mixing wine and water). ca. 490-480 BCE, from Attica. Attributed to the Berlin painter. British Museum, London. © The Trustees of the British Museum

Heracles, the most popular Greek hero, is known for his unmatched strength, fearlessness, and the mythic labors that cle...
18/06/2025

Heracles, the most popular Greek hero, is known for his unmatched strength, fearlessness, and the mythic labors that cleared the world of monsters. He is easily recognizable by his lion skin and wooden club, symbols of his first labor: the defeat of the Nemean lion. In one striking vase scene, Heracles is shown at the gates of the Underworld, wrestling the two-headed guard dog Cerberus, with Athena, his ever-present protector, by his side.

But Heracles’ strength wasn’t only used for slaying beasts. In Euripides’ play Alcestis, we see a different kind of battle: one against Death itself. When King Admetus of Pherae, fated to die young, is given a chance to live, if someone will take his place, it’s his wife Alcestis who volunteers. His aging parents refuse. Admetus, torn between fear and sorrow, allows her to make the sacrifice. While Alcestis offers her life in place of her husband Admetus, Heracles, on his way to Thrace, stops in Thessaly, understands the injustice, and challenges Thanatos (Death personified) to save her.

The story, retold in many forms over centuries, resonates with themes of loyalty, sacrifice, and moral complexity. In this volute-krater Alcestis stands between her husband and terrifying death demons: Charon, with an animal head and heavy mallet, and Acheron or Tuchulcha, an Etruscan underworld figure with snakes in his hair and donkey-like ears.

In 1960 Martha Graham created “Alcestis”, her own version of the myth. Alcestis, her husband Admetus, Heracles, and Death are the main characters, while a Greek chorus performs some of the most memorable parts of the dance. The story is told from the female perspective and focuses on female sacrifice and the enduring strength of women.

Images: 1. Heracles trying to capture Cerberus, the two-headed dog that guarded the entrance to the Underworld. Detail from a Red-Figure Amphora. Andokides Painter, 530–510 BCE. Louvre Museum, Paris.
2. Admetus and Alcestis. Etruscan Red-Figure Volute-Krater. ca. 350-340 BCE. Attributed to the Alcestis Group. Collection Medals and Antiques. National Library of France. Paris.

Odysseus, possibly Greek myth’s most beloved hero, stands out for the fantastical adventures he experiences during his j...
13/06/2025

Odysseus, possibly Greek myth’s most beloved hero, stands out for the fantastical adventures he experiences during his journey from Troy to his hometown Ithaca. One of the creatures he encounters is the beautiful and enchanting sorceress Circe, who uses magic potions to turn Odysseus’ men into pigs and tempts Odysseus to stay with her.

Fascinated by the power of magic and the supernatural, Graham focused on the enchanting qualities of this sorceress and her ability to control both men and animals in her 1963 dance Circe.

Image: Odysseus pursuing Circe, while the sorceress has dropped her magic wand and vessel that contains her magic potions. Attic Red-Figure Calyx-Krater. ca. 440 BCE. Attributed to the Persephone Painter. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York.

In Greek myth, Theseus is best known as the democratic and heroic king of Athens. After a series of legendary exploits—i...
11/06/2025

In Greek myth, Theseus is best known as the democratic and heroic king of Athens. After a series of legendary exploits—including his slaying of the Minotaur in the labyrinth of Crete—Theseus returns to Athens, ascends to the throne, and becomes a symbol of justice and order, credited with contributing to the foundation of Athenian democracy.

However, in Euripides' tragedy Hippolytus, we encounter a lesser-known and more tragic dimension of Theseus' life. During his earlier adventures, Theseus fathers a son, Hippolytus, with the Amazon warrior Hippolyte. Hippolytus grows into a proud and austere young man, devoted to hunting and to the goddess Artemis, the virgin huntress. He takes a vow of chastity and refuses to worship Aphrodite, the goddess of love.

Aphrodite, angered by this rejection, enacts a cruel revenge. She causes Phaedra, Theseus’ wife and Hippolytus’ stepmother, to fall hopelessly in love with him. When Hippolytus spurns Phaedra’s advances and harshly denounces her, she takes her own life, leaving behind a note falsely accusing Hippolytus of r**e.

Blinded by grief and rage, Theseus believes the accusation. Calling upon a promise from Poseidon, he curses his son. Poseidon answers by sending a monstrous bull from the sea, terrifying Hippolytus’ horses and causing a fatal crash as the youth is thrown from his chariot.

As Hippolytus lies dying, Artemis appears and reveals the truth to Theseus. In their final moments together, father and son reconcile. Hippolytus forgives his father, and Theseus is left shattered by the death of his innocent son—a victim not of crime, but of divine vengeance and tragic misunderstanding.
Martha Graham focused on Phaedra’s forbidden fascination with Hippolytus in her 1962 dance Phaedra, a work that was criticized for being overly sexual and provocative.

Images: 1. Theseus and Hippolyte. Attic Red-Figure Lekythos. ca. 420 BCE. Attributed to the Eretria Painter. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. The lower zone of this exceptional lekythos depicts Theseus and Hippolyte in combat among Greeks and Amazons.

2. Hippolytus riding a four-horse chariot while a bull appears from below to frighten them. At the horses' heads to the left is Lyssa, a personification of unbridled fury and rabies in animals. She has twined snakes in her hair and around each arm, and she drives the horses mad. Volute-Krater. ca. 340-320 BCE. Attributed to the Darius Painter. The British Museum. London.

Agamemnon, one of the major Greek generals and warriors, led the expedition to Troy alongside his brother Menelaus. But ...
06/06/2025

Agamemnon, one of the major Greek generals and warriors, led the expedition to Troy alongside his brother Menelaus. But victory came at a tragic cost — a prophecy demanded he sacrifice his daughter Iphigeneia to ensure the Greek fleet’s success. After 10 years at war, he returns home a victor, but his wife Clytemnestra, wanting to take revenge for the murder of their daughter, has taken a new lover and murders Agamemnon upon his return. The story of Agamemnon, his success at the Trojan War and his infamous murder at the hands of his wife, was narrated in many works, from the Homeric poems to Greek tragedy and ancient pottery.

The story doesn’t end there. Agamemnon and Clytemnestra’s son, Orestes, driven by loyalty to his father, teams up with his sister Electra to avenge Agamemnon’s death by killing their mother. Afterward, Orestes seeks refuge at Delphi, where he is protected by Apollo and guided to seek Athena’s help in Athens; a trial conducted in Athens acquits Orestes and puts an end to this cycle of vengeance and fate.

In Martha Graham’s powerful dance piece Clytemnestra (1958), the story is retold from Clytemnestra’s perspective, who appears as a shade in the Underworld and relives the events in her memory, including Agamemnon’s triumphant return and his murder which is shown in full view on stage. Aegisthus plays a crucial role too, as he persuades Clytemnestra to take the knife and murder Agamemnon, and he also appears as Clytemnestra’s lover while the two of them are younger and dancing in Clytemnestra’s memory. The queen’s final encounter is with her own son and murderer Orestes, an encounter that leads to her redemption.

Images: 1. Agamemnon (or perhaps the seer Calchas) sacrifices Iphigeneia. Apulian Red-Figure Volute- Krater. ca. 370-350 BCE. Attributed to the Iliupersis Painter. The British Museum. London.
2. Aegisthus kills Agamemnon. Attic Red-Figure Calyx-krater. ca. 460 BCE. Attributed to the Dokimasia Painter. Museum of Fine Arts. Boston.
3. Orestes grips the Omphalos at Delphi. Athena and Apollo are on each side of him while two Furies are asleep below him. South-Italian red-figure bell-krater. ca.370-360 BCE. Attributed to the Judgement Painter. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

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